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Dear Readers, Over the past two decades, the rapid progress achieved in the field of the human microbiota has led to the emergence of a new biological framework that extends beyond the classical “commensal–pathogen” dichotomy. It is now supported by strong molecular and clinical evidence that microbial communities residing in different anatomical sites, particularly the gut, play a decisive role in immune system development, metabolic balance, neurodevelopment, and disease progression. Thanks to highthroughput sequencing technologies, multiomics approaches, and advanced bioinformatic analyses, the composition and functional potential of the microbiota can be characterized in detail, opening new windows for understanding the delicate balance between health and disease. Nevertheless, a significant gap still remains between the rapidly expanding body of knowledge in microbiota science and its translation into clinical practice. Although numerous studies have identified strong associations between microbial alterations and various diseases, interpreting these relationships within a causal framework and integrating them reliably into clinical decisionmaking processes involve substantial methodological and biological challenges. Differences in sampling strategies, diversity of analytical platforms, interpopulation heterogeneity, and the lack of standardized reference ranges are among the main factors limiting the generalizability of current findings. Therefore, the translation of microbiotarelated knowledge into clinical practice requires not only technical accuracy but also conceptual caution. This book aims to address the human microbiota not merely as a descriptive ecosystem, but as a dynamic biological system that changes throughout life and remains in continuous interaction with environmental and clinical factors. The physiological foundations of microbiota development from infancy to old age, the conceptual boundaries of dysbiosis, associations with different disease groups, and the current level of evidence regarding microbiotabased interventions are presented through a holistic approach grounded in the contemporary literature. In particular, attention is drawn to issues frequently encountered in clinical translation, such as overgeneralization, methodological uncertainty, and limitations in evidence level, with the aim of providing readers with a critical framework for evaluation. The fundamental approach of this book is not to present the microbiota as the “key to every disease,” but to evaluate it in a manner that remains faithful to biological reality and the limits of existing evidence. Clearly defining diagnostic and therapeutic methods, explicitly stating what the applied technologies can and cannot measure, and shaping clinical expectations in alignment with scientific data constitute the core of this approach. Within this framework, the book aims to serve as a robust, balanced, and uptodate reference source for both researchers and clinicians in the field of microbiota science. The future of microbiota research will be shaped by interdisciplinary collaboration, standardized methodologies, and studies focusing on clinically meaningful outcome measures. This book seeks not only to compile existing knowledge, but also to contribute to this process by encouraging critical thinking and promoting progress guided by scientific prudence. During the preparation of this book, the scientific guidance and critical evaluations provided by the section editors played a decisive role in shaping its academic framework. The meticulous contributions of the associate editors regarding content coherence, terminological consistency, and adherence to publication standards strengthened the integrity and readability of the work. The dedicated efforts of the contributing authors, who combined current literature with a clinical perspective, formed the fundamental scientific basis of this volume. We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to Türkiye Klinikleri Publishing House, whose constructive approach and experience in academic publishing supported the process at every stage. The coordination and editorial support provided by the publishing team made a significant contribution to maintaining the scientific quality of the book. Sincerely,

Malaria is named after the Italian term “mal’aria”, which means “bad air” to represent the association of the disease with mar shy areas (Fikadu and Ashenafi, 2023; Tuteja, 2007). Towards the end of the 19th century, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, a French army surgeon, noticed parasites in the blood of a patient suffering from malaria, and Ronald Ross, a British medical offi cer in Hyderabad, India, discovered that mosquitoes transmitted malaria. The Italian professor Giovanni Battista Grassi subsequ ently showed that human malaria could only be transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes (Tuteja, 2007).

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